Ian's+Research+Paper

Ian's home page Ian Hitchcock Ms. Knight Senior Project: Research Paper 18 November 2009 The Evolution of American Journalism: Throughout its history, American journalism has been an active force in shaping the political and social landscape of the country. Its importance has been recognized by individuals from the founding fathers in the first amendment to contemporary journalists. “There's a dire need for institutions that tell the truth, that pursue the truth , and that chase it at all costs” says Dan Baquet (Frontline News War-Baquet). As technology has changed the methods of human communication, American journalism has evolved to accommodate those changes. With the rise of the internet, journalism today is facing questions about how the resulting changes impact the both the journalism industry and society as a whole. Journalism owes its existence to technological advances. The invention of the printing press allowed society to produce information and to distribute it to a vast audience, creating the first newspapers. American journalism was born out of the revolutionary pamphlets of authors such as Thomas Pain. Throughout the history of the United States, reporters delivered stories which had tremendous impacts on the political and social life of the nation. Before the advent of radio, newspapers were the sole source for original reporting in the United States, focusing on providing objective coverage of world events. In the early 1950s, a new form of media emerged which delivered the news in more interactive ways. Television would revolutionize the way that people received their news. One of the first shows to capitalize on this new medium was //See It Now//, produced by famous journalist Edward R. Murrow. Murrow’s program analyzed controversial topics of the day, utilizing its own camera crews to capture exclusive footage of world events. This show would conduct the first live coast to coast transmission, and was largely responsible for pioneering many of the practices now common in television news such as the incorporation of unique video footage. Murrow’s most influential broadcast came on March 9, 1954, when he directly challenged Senator Joseph McCarthy’s tactics during the red scare of the 1950’s. Murrow’s broadcast has been credited with helping to bring about the end of McCarythism, and has become one of the leading examples of the power of the press. In the early 1950s, news had been thought of by networks as a public service rather than a financial endeavor. Paragraph 315 of The Federal Communications Commission official code mandated that news organizations “shall operate in the public interest, convenience, and necessity.” (Frontline News War-Kappel). This perception of news would be forever changed by the CBS program //60 Minutes//. //60 Minutes// was the first news program to turn a profit. After //60 Minutes// continued to bring revenue to CBS, there was a realization in the private sector that news had the potential to be extremely profitable. This realization, coupled with deregulation in the 1980s under the Regan Administration, led to a vast series of corperate news takeovers. The explosion of 24 hour cable news resulted in fierce competition between networks. Each network began focusing more on opinion based journalism in an effort to distinguish themselves from their competitors, and generate more revenue through popular, emotionally appealing programs. It became expected that news programs would make money in addition to providing information. The result has been a series of practices in mass media which are widely criticized. Mass media is dominated by sensationalized coverage that is designed to appeal to peoples’ emotions. //The O’Reilly Factor// is an example of this. In a famous interview with Democrat Barney Frank, O’Reilly launched vocal tirades against Frank, shouting down Frank’s attempts to respond. Later, O’Reilly admitted that his performance in that interview was an act, designed to vilify Frank and make the conflict personal (//Wikipedia//-Bill O’Riley). Another example of the media’s use of emotional news is the coverage of the recent town hall meetings regarding health care reform. Participants in the town halls shouted at their elected representatives, brandishing signs which portrayed President Obama as Adolph Hitler. Coverage of these protestors and the concerns they raised over topics such as “death panels” received the majority of the media’s attention. Coverage of shouting protestors dominated the media, overriding any other voices from being presented. In response to the practices of mass media, shows have cropped up to satire the way mass media reports news. The most prominent example is //The Daily Show with Jon Stewart//. In //The Daily Show//, Stewart satirizes political news, exposing absurdities with his comic style. In one show, he interviewed former Pakistani President Pervez Masharif. The interview began with Stewart offering tea before asking him to reveal the location of Osama Bin Ladin. A Pew Research Center poll showed that the majority of people under 25 get their news online and from sources such as Comedy Central. (Pew Research Center). This fact is bemoaned by those who work on the show. David Javerbaum, //The Daily Show's// head writer, says "To the extent that people look to us (//The Daily Show//) as a source of news, that is 100 percent indicative of other people's failure and not our success." (Frontline News War-Javerbaum). Today, journalism is undergoing a revolution which dwarfs the impact of the television revolution 60 years ago. The rise of the internet gives everyone access to instant, worldwide means of communication, and resources which are no longer limited by political or geographic boundaries. The .com age creates an environment which raises new questions about the role of the press in American society. The most profound impact of the internet on journalism is the rise of citizen journalism. Through the prevalence of the internet, cell phones, and laptops, anyone can create content and instantly share it with the world. Content collecting websites, such as Youtube.com have given individuals a forum in which to present their work to a global audience. "People want to be part of the media," blogger Markos Moulitsas says, "They don't want to sit there and listen anymore … And the traditional media is still predicated on the passive consumer model -- you sit there and watch.” (Frontline News War-Moulitsas). This citizen journalism allows consumers of news to get information that has not been filtered through a newsroom, leading to greater access to information. Another impact of the internet revolution is the proliferation of information from sources throughout the world. The internet allows for information to be presented from across the world in a matter of seconds. Mark Glaser, host of the online PBS blog //Media Shift//, says “One of the undersung advantages of the Internet is that it gives us access to content from newspapers, TV channels, blogs and podcasts from around the world. No longer are we limited to our local media for news of the world. Now we can go directly to that corner of the world to get a local angle from far away” (PBS Media Shift-Glasser). Because traditional news organizations are limited by bias, local coverage can help eliminate cultural and geogaphical bais in a certain area of the world, allowing a wider range of viewpoints to be presented. The rise of the internet has already had a practical political impact on journalism’s influence. Powerful politicians such as former House Majority leader Trent Lot and Congressman Mark Foley have had their careers destroyed because of collaborations between amateur and professional journalists made possible by the internet. Lot was attacked online for making remarks in which he supported segregationist policies. While his remarks had initially been ignored by major media outlets, online bloggers kept the story alive until he was forced to resign. Mark Foley resigned after ABC news’s blog, The Blotter, received an anonymous tip regarding sexually explicit emails the senator had sent to Congressional Pages. After ABC posted a story regarding Foley’s indiscretion, comments poured in from the web from past pages who presented documents which further incriminated Foley. “ The Internet allows ad-hoc investigations to take place between professional reporters and amateur sleuths.” Mark Glaser observes (PBS Media Shift-Glaser). This opens new doors for whistleblowers to expose corruption and abuse of power and present that information to journalists, who in turn inform the public. The internet has had the effect of holding professional journalists accountable the stories the present. “I t's also true that bloggers and free-thinkers online have provided an important check and balance to reporting.” says Mark Glaser, “ They might have an axe to grind or a political bias, but if they uncover shoddy reporting, plagiarism or false sourcing, it's a good thing for journalists and the public.” (PBS Media Shift-Glaser). Indeed, many major news organizations have been forced to issue corrections to their articles because of comments made by online readers. The internet also allows reporters to present information about themselves, exposing potential biases and conflicts of interest that can jeopordize their reporting. An example of this new role of the internet was the incident known as “Rathergate.” In his role as the anchor of the CBS show //60 Minutes Wednesday//, Dan Rather presented a story which questioned then President George W. Bush’s military service, presenting documents obtained from a military source as evidence that Bush abdicated his duty while in the armed forces. After the report aired, blogs and discussion boards lit up with people questioning the authenticity of the documents. Initially, Rather and CBS stood by the validity of their documents. However, the blogosphere persisted in criticizing the documents, and after an independent investigation, it was discovered that CBS had not authenticated them before presenting them as fact. (Walsh-Who Killed Dan Rather?). Rather apologized to his viewers, and resigned from CBS later that year. In response to the influence of the internet, news organizations have incorporated multimedia as a supplement to more traditional news distribution. Len Downie, executive editor of the //Washington Post//, says “ Our newsroom is no longer just a print newspaper newsroom. It also serves (as) a Web site that has millions and millions of readers each day and is growing, along with a number of other publications that we've either bought or started.” (Frontline News War-Downie). The website of the //PBS Newshour// allows users to watch recent and archived episodes of the broadcast, comment on stories, email stories to their friends, and ask reporters questions in scheduled forums. This website also includes links to other news sites, allowing users to jump from one website to another in the blink of an eye. This empowers users to get their information from a variety of news outlets, and avoid any bias inherent within a specific news outlet. However, even as the internet has exposed new sources of material for journalism, it has brought the business model of gathering news into turmoil. While online search engines such as Yahoo and Google give consumers greater access to news, these search engines still rely on reporters from major newspapers to conduct original reporting. Newspapers are finding it more and more difficult to retain reporters. Advertising revenue and classified ads, the two biggest sources of income for newspapers, are shifting from print journalism to online avenues. Newsrooms are cutting staffs and facing decreasing circulation as the public gains more and more of its news online. Some major newspapers like the //Christian Science Monitor// have stopped producing a paper product all together, and now do all of their reporting online. Additionally, newspapers have been allowing consumers to view their reports free online, creating an expectation for free content among younger users. This leads to an audience who is resistant to paying for content. However, there are those who argue that it is essential for newspapers to begin charging for content. Walter Isacson of //TIME Magazine// says, “ Charging for content forces discipline on journalists: they must produce things that people actually value. I suspect we will find that this necessity is actually liberating. The need to be valued by readers — serving them first and foremost rather than relying solely on advertising revenue — will allow the media once again to set their compass true to what journalism should always be about.” (//TIME//-Isacson). The difficulty of charging for content underscores the economic difficulties facing newspapers today. A potential solution to the problems facing newspapers today is hyperlocalism. Hyperlocalism is the coverage of local events by local news organizations which excludes national and international events. Proponents of hyper localism argue that readers are interested in hearing about local events from local papers. Yet some worry that the rise of hyperlocalism diminishes the quality of national news coverage. As more and more newspapers devote the majority of their reporting to local issues, international events are often reported on by only a few news outlets. This means that if those newspapers get a story wrong, that incorrect information is distributed throughout the country. An example of the extent to which having only a few national newspapers undermines journalism is the coverage of Weapons of Mass Destruction in Iraq. During the buildup to the Iraq War, the mass media was getting the majority of information regarding the threat Iraq posed from Bush administration officials. As a result, the media served the indirect role of cheerleader for the war, presenting information as fact without verifying it. Upon invading Iraq, it was discovered that the nation had not had been in possession of weapons of mass destruction, the primary rational for the war that had been repeated for months in the media. Much of the original reporting regarding claims of Weapons of Mass Destruction was done by New York Times journalist Judith Miller. After Miller began publishing stories which suggested that Iraq was in possession of Weapons of Mass Destruction, the rest of the media quickly followed. Millers stories cited “American intelligence officials” as the basis for her information. Indeed, Bush Administration officials pointed to Miller’s articles as proof of the threat Iraq posed. By having the //New York Times// as one of the few news outlets focusing on national events, errors made by a //Times// reporter resulted in widespread public support for a war whose principle rational turned out to be false. Ironically, while newspapers face declining revenue, there is more demand for the news than ever. “ There is,” says Walter Isacson, “a striking and somewhat odd fact about this crisis. Newspapers have more readers than ever. Their content, as well as that of news magazines and other producers of traditional journalism, is more popular than ever — even (in fact, especially) among young people.” (//TIME//-Isacson). According to the Pew Research Center, while newspapers are selling fewer issues, the consumption of news online is more prevalent than ever. “I think what's under threat is not the journalistic model. What's under more threat is the business model for what a great newspaper is.” says Dean Baquet, former editor of the //Los Angeles Times//. “I have no doubt, because of the way the capitalist system works, that the people who own newspapers will figure out a way to profit from it… I'm worried about protecting the institution during that middle period. But I'm excited about the Web, even though [we] and everybody else were slow to embrace it” (Frontline News War-Baquet). In a democratic society, journalism is essential because it is the means through which citizens gather knowledge upon which they base their decisions and votes. Journalism has been called the forth branch of government because of the unique position it holds in keeping public officials accountable both to their constituents and the truth. Today, journalism faces fundamental questions regarding its path going forward as the internet revolutionizes human communication. However the field adapts to the changes of the internet, one thing is clear. The quest for truth which as at the heart of journalism is one that is essential to the perpetuation of a free society.

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